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Solo role-playing games are tabletop and live-action role-playing games[1] that can be played by a single person, without the participation of other players or a gamemaster. The term typically does not include single-player computer role-playing games. Solo role-playing games may be either designed from the ground-up to be played by a single person, or they may exist as modes or supplements for role-playing games otherwise requiring multiple people for play. Solo role-playing games are part of a wider range of single-person game-like activities, such as solo board and card games or solo wargames.

Even though role-playing games are typically thought of as exclusively social activities, the practice of solo role-playing has existed since the earliest years of the hobby, with a solo ruleset for original Dungeons & Dragons first appearing in 1975.

History

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Solo role-playing games can be traced back to the emergence of tabletop role-playing in the 1970s United States. The original Dungeons & Dragons tabletop role-playing game, published in 1974, already anticipated the possibility of solo role-playing in some respects. The game contained rules for playing on the map that came with the board game Outdoor Survival, as well as charts for determining encounters, which effectively eliminated the need for a gamemaster's oversight. A year later, in 1975, TSR, Inc., the original publishers of Dungeons & Dragons, published the feature "Solo Dungeon Adventures" by Gary Gygax in the first issue of The Strategic Review, a precursor to the Dragon magazine.[2]: 151  The article acknowledged the possibility of playing Dungeons & Dragons solo using the Outdoor Survival map, but pointed out that there was no uniform method for dungeon exploration. To fix this, the article provided tables for random dungeon generation.[3]

The next year, in 1976, the Buffalo Castle dungeon adventure was published for the Tunnels & Trolls role-playing game, which was the first stand-alone solo role-playing product on the market.[4] Buffalo Castle's innovation was combining a dungeon description with a gamebook format. This helped provide a more directed experience to those players, who felt that randomly generated dungeons were too chaotic.[2]: 152–153  Steve Jackson reviewed Buffalo Castle in The Space Gamer No. 9, writing "If you're into role-playing, you'll enjoy Buffalo Castle. If you're into solo role-playing, buy it."[5] Together with Ian Livingstone, Steve Jackson would go on to create and publish Fighting Fantasy starting in 1982. Much like Buffalo Castle, Fighting Fantasy books combined the gamebook format with tabletop role-playing game mechanics. The books soon proved to be very popular, holding the top three spots of The Sunday Times bestseller list in March 1983.[6] Many other similar role-playing gamebook series, such as Lone Wolf, would start being published around the same period.[2]: 153 

Mid-2010s to present

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Tabletop role-playing as a whole experienced a huge surge in popularity in the mid-2010s, evolving from a niche hobby to a massively popular pastime.[7] One of the reasons for the increased popularity of role-playing games in the 2010s was the rise of actual play content.[8] Academic Shelly Jones wrote that players and designers developed "new forms of text-based online freeform role-playing" in parallel with the written gameplay session reports on The Forge, commenting that "textual role-playing has flourished" through the recent growth of solo journaling role-playing games.[9]: 354  Academic Evan Torner traced the development and impact of online indie role-playing game designer and theorist communities, noting that after 2006 the community fragmented into what became known as The Forge diaspora.[10]: 197  Torner explained that "forums, podcasts, and blogs were joined by social media", with a "sizable community" joining "Google+ after its launch in 2011" and following the subsequent collapse of Google+ in 2019, "a sudden exodus to two specific, industry-changing platforms: Twitter (now known as X) and itch.io".[10]: 197–198  Both Jones and Sarah Lynne Bowman et al. highlighted itch.io as facilitating the growth of solo role-playing games.[9]: 354 [11] Torner argued that "Twitter democratized theory discussions" and "Itch.io permitted creators to sell their works of theory and design easily and directly to their constituent audiences". The proliferation of various monetization services "made financial transactions a natural component of the space, meaning that theory discussions were both happening in public, nonprofit, and privatized, platform-building contexts".[10]: 198 

The COVID-19 pandemic that began in December 2019 and spread globally resulted in social distancing measures being instituted nearly worldwide.[12] Due to the inability to pursue social recreation during this period, many people had to seek comparable alternatives or new hobbies that can be enjoyed within the imposed restrictions.[13] Rowan Zeoli, for Polygon, explained that solo tabletop games "started in earnest with wargames in the [1980s]" and slowly rose "in prominence for the next few decades until the quarantine period of the ongoing COVID pandemic offered a perfect moment for board games and TTRPGs".[14] While many people found online video games or virtual tabletops, many chose solo role-playing.[15][11]

Games also got more experimental with mechanics and themes. For solo role-playing games this meant the rise of the journaling game genre. Katie Wickens of GamesRadar+ noted that many of the earliest games were "solo mods of multiplayer TRPGs", typically involving "dice and/or cards, a character sheet, and a hex map from your chosen tabletop RPG to wander through".[16] Similar to non-solo games, they often required stat tracking; however, Wickens observed that the journaling elements and story tracking requirements "were far less introspective than the kind we often see" in the 2020s.[16] Wickens commented that the "genre has evolved profoundly", with many including a narrative focus – "the lines between simple solo RPG systems and journaling games have become far more blurred over the years".[16] Additionally, she noted that "many solo journaling systems today are not only subversions of the standard pen-and-paper model" but also introduce "their own unique and even far-flung mechanics to help cement the theme".[16] In 2026, the ENNIE Awards for role-playing game products introduced the "Best Solo Game" category.[17][18]

Purpose

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Role-playing games are often considered predominantly or exclusively social activities.[10]: 196  People are typically introduced to board games and role-playing games in social contexts, creating an assumption that they necessitate social presence.[19]: 138  The difficulty of recruiting both a gamemaster and other players was one of the early pushes for the development of the genre, leading to first experiments with solo role-playing soon after tabletop role-playing's first emergence.[2]: 151 

Solo role-playing games have both scheduling and narrative flexibility.[20][21] Some players may want to experience solo role-playing games on their own terms, not simply as a replacement or enhancement of the traditional role-playing experience. They may be interested in the gameplay mechanics and style unique to a solo role-playing game, or the more introspective and therapeutic experience of playing alone.[16] Brendan Hesse of Lifehacker highlighted that solo TTRPGs "run the gamut of settings and playstyles" and while it is a "different experience", solo games combine "the tactile feel of dice rolls and imagination-driven approach of group-based tabletop gaming, with the pick-up-and-play nature of single-player video games".[22] The use of solo role-playing games has been explored as a tool for teaching literature[23] and family business management.[24]

Gameplay elements

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There exist a wide variety of activities that can be considered solo role-playing games, suitable for different preferences. Just like with other kinds of role-playing games, they express a wide variety in structure and game mechanics.[25] However, there are some elements that are particularly characteristic of solo role-playing games.

Oracles

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Photo of the obverse and the reverse of a United States quarter dollar
A coin can serve as a primitive oracle, providing random answers to yes-no questions

An oracle, also called a gamemaster emulator, is a mechanism used to answer questions about the game world through randomness, for example with dice rolls or card draws. Typically, oracles operate by providing an answer to a yes-no question posed by the player, much like the Magic 8 Ball and similar methods of divination.[26] Oracles can range in sophistication from simple coin tosses to systems of random tables adjusting probabilities based on previous game states.[27] Software implementations of oracle systems exist.[28]

While oracles are frequently an integral part of a solo role-playing game's ruleset, they can also be sold as stand-alone products aimed at facilitating GM-less gameplay in role-playing games that may otherwise need a gamemaster to run the game or for providing additional assistance to gamemasters running such games.[26]

Paragraph-based gameplay

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A paragraph-based game is a kind of game in which interactions with text constitute the main or the only form of gameplay. If the narrative fragments provided by the game interact with other game elements in some way, the game can be said to be paragraph-enhanced.[29]: 193 

Gamebooks are a prominent category of paragraph-based games.[21]

Journaling

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Two handmade, hardbacked, fabric covered junk journals with one angled on top of the other so both are visible.
Players may be required to supply their own journal to play a solo role-playing game[30]

Academic Jessica Hammer and Paul Czege explained that "journaling games are a conceptual grouping of single-player games" where writing is a central gameplay element. They highlighted "these games exist as formal, published documents", noting "as of 2023, there were 1,092 journaling games downloadable on the indie publishing site itch.io".[31]: 171 

While "journaling" typically refers to the literal recording of game events in a journal or a notebook, some games experiment with the concept. Some games might require the player to record real events alongside fictional ones, or blend them together. A "journal" may also take a variety of forms, from textual entries on a paper or digital medium, to marks on the player's skin.[32] While journaling games typically prompt written responses, they may also incorporate other creative practices such as drawing, embroidery or others.[31]: 171 

Map addition

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Map addition is the process of adding to the map as it is explored. This mechanic introduces uncertainty into exploration.[33]: 465  This mechanic has been used in solo role-playing since its earliest days, particularly in dungeon-crawlers. For example, a 1975 issue of TSR's The Strategic Review contained the feature "Solo Dungeon Adventures", describing the rules for using dice to randomly generate underground passages, chambers, traps, adversaries, and plunder as the player explored a dungeon.[2]: 151  While these rules allow the player to map-out a location with a high level of detail, games with less focus on tactical combat may provide rules for "lower-resolution" map exploration, adding locations to a bigger map, but only providing general descriptions of the locations themselves.[34]

Notable solo games and supplements

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References

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  1. ↑ "What is a LARP?". Greater Boston LARP Society. Archived from the original on September 10, 2025. Retrieved September 10, 2025.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Peterson, Jon (March 29, 2020). The Elusive Shift: How Role-Playing Games Forged Their Identity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262544900.
  3. ↑ Gygax, Gary (1975). "Solo Dungeon Adventures". The Strategic Review. Vol. 1, no. 1. TSR, Inc. pp. 3–5.
  4. ↑ Pappe, Gero (2011). P & P-Rollenspiel. - der kollektive Zugang zu utopischen Weltentwürfen und individuellen Phantasiekonstrukten (in German). Berlin: Logos Verlag. p. 27. ISBN 9783832527778.
  5. ↑ Jackson, Steve (December 1976 – January 1977). "Reviews". The Space Gamer. No. 9. Metagaming. p. 28.
  6. ↑ "The retro cult around Fighting Fantasy gamebooks". BBC News. August 25, 2014. Archived from the original on May 21, 2026. Retrieved May 21, 2026.
  7. ↑ Colquhoun, Devyn Rorem; Melenberg, Mark; Pei, Jacqueline (February 2026). "Tabletop role playing games as a way forward with structurally marginalized youth: A narrative review". Children and Youth Services Review. 181 108739. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108739.
  8. ↑ Vukojević, Borislav; Savić, Dalibor (December 27, 2024). "Media Convergence of Role-playing Games (1974-2024): From Participation to Commodification and Back Again". Applied Media Studies Journal. 5 (2). University of Niš: 7–21. doi:10.46630/msae.2.2024.01.
  9. 1 2 Jones, Shelly (June 27, 2024). "Documented and Actual Play in Role-Playing Games". In Zagal, José; Deterding, Sebastian (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Role-Playing Game Studies. pp. 352–364.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Torner, Evan (June 27, 2024). "RPG Theorizing by Designers and Players". In Zagal, José; Deterding, Sebastian (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Role-Playing Game Studies. pp. 197–210.
  11. 1 2 Lynne Bowman, Sarah; Diakolambrianou, Elektra; Bandhoesingh, Angie; van Tilborg, Guus; Giovannucci, Alessandro; Suominen, Taisto (January 1, 2025). "A Brief Introduction to Role-playing Games and Cousin Activities". Transformative Role-playing Game Design. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. p. 28. doi:10.33063/23xd2197. ISBN 978-91-513-2301-5.
  12. ↑ Li, Lili; Taeihagh, Araz; Tan, Si Ying (February 3, 2023). "A scoping review of the impacts of COVID-19 physical distancing measures on vulnerable population groups". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 599. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14..599L. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36267-9. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 9897623. PMID 36737447.
  13. ↑ Morse, K. F.; Fine, Philip A.; Friedlander, Kathryn J. (July 5, 2021). "Creativity and Leisure During COVID-19: Examining the Relationship Between Leisure Activities, Motivations, and Psychological Well-Being". Frontiers in Psychology. 12 609967. Frontiers Media. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.609967. PMC 8288551. PMID 34290635.
  14. ↑ Zeoli, Rowan (January 2, 2025). "Can't find a tabletop gaming group? Try the solo version instead". Polygon. Archived from the original on May 21, 2026. Retrieved May 21, 2026.
  15. ↑ Wiik, Elisa; Alha, Kati (December 14, 2023). "Playing on life's terms: Behavioral strategies for changing situations". Eludamos: Journal for Computer Game Culture. 14 (1). Septentrio Academic Publishing. doi:10.7557/23.7115.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Wickens, Katie (February 26, 2025). "Solo RPGs and journaling games give me advantage on mental health rolls in a way D&D couldn't". GamesRadar+. Archived from the original on May 21, 2026. Retrieved May 21, 2026.
  17. ↑ Puc, Samantha (July 3, 2026). "2026 ENNIE Award Nominees have been announced". The Beat. Retrieved July 16, 2026.
  18. ↑ Sweeney, Michael (July 14, 2026). "New Bundle Showcases ENNIES Best Solo Games" (Press release). Rascal News. Retrieved July 16, 2026. 2026 marked a new direction for the ENNIE Awards, introducing a brand new category: Best Solo Game.
  19. ↑ Nougher, Liam (May 15, 2024). "If Only I Had Someone to Play With: Sociality in Single Player Board Games". Press Start. 10 (1). University of Glasgow: 137–156. Retrieved September 11, 2025.
  20. ↑ Schlottag, Stephanie (December 28, 2023). "Kann man Pen & Paper eigentlich alleine spielen? Na klar! Wir erklären, wie's geht". GameStar (in German).
  21. 1 2 Lucas, Danielle (January 1, 2026). "Everything you need to get started playing solo tabletop RPGs". GamesRadar+.
  22. ↑ Hesse, Brendan (June 15, 2022). "Solo Tabletop RPGs Are Really Fun, Actually". Lifehacker. Retrieved September 2, 2025.
  23. ↑ Meier, Jan-Niklas (September 11, 2025). "Briefe aus fernen Welten: Literarisches Lernen mit Solo-Rollenspielen". Grundschule Deutsch (in German) (87). Hannover: Friedrich Verlag.
  24. ↑ Swab, R. Gabrielle; Sherlock, Chelsea; Mercer, Ian S.; Harris, John N. (July 25, 2023). "Creation and Succession: Storytelling to Promote Experiential Learning in Family Business Education". Management Teaching Review. 10 (2): 128–142. doi:10.1177/23792981231187989.
  25. ↑ Carter, Chase (July 27, 2020). "How to play tabletop RPGs by yourself: A beginner's guide to solo roleplaying". Dicebreaker.
  26. 1 2 Cullen, Maddie (January 6, 2023). "5 ways to play RPGs without a GM". Dicebreaker.
  27. ↑ Pigeon, Tana (2023). Mythic Game Master Emulator 2nd Edition. Riverside, CA: Word Mill Games. p. 9. ISBN 9798376725603.
  28. ↑ Bruner, Scott Michael (May 2023). Agential Fantasy: A Copenhagen Approach to the Tabletop Role-Playing Game (PhD thesis). University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. p. 52. Archived from the original on October 7, 2023.
  29. ↑ Arnaudo, Marco (2024). The Tabletop Revolution: Gaming Reimagined in the 21st Century. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1-4766-8203-7.
  30. ↑ Loring-Albright, Greg; Willison, Wes (May 21, 2025). "Materiality of Keepsake Games". Generation Analog 2021. Knowledge Commons: 55–66. doi:10.17613/ya2wp-7sb40.
  31. 1 2 Hammer, Jessica; Czege, Paul (June 27, 2024). "Text-Based Role-Playing Games". In Zagal, José; Deterding, Sebastian (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Role-Playing Game Studies.
  32. ↑ Blackburn, Brandon (July 4, 2025). "Precarity, Porousness, and Queer Subjects: Critical Play of Ecological Solo Journaling Games". Analog Game Studies. 12 (2). doi:10.5070/V7.64533.
  33. ↑ Engelstein, Geoffrey; Shalev, Isaac (2022). Building Blocks of Tabletop Game Design: An Encyclopedia of Mechanisms (2nd ed.). CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781003179184. ISBN 978-1-032-01583-5.
  34. ↑ Tomkin, Shawn (2018). Ironsworn: A Tabletop RPG of Perilous Quests. p. 130.
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