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Second Turkic Khaganate

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Second Turkic Khaganate
𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜:𐰃𐰠
Türük el
682–744
Approximate map of the Second Turkic Khaganate, 720 AD.
StatusKhaganate (Nomadic empire)
CapitalOtuken (summer camp)
Yarγan yurtï (winter camp)[1][page needed]
Common languagesOld Turkic (official)[2]
Religion
Tengrism (official)[3]
GovernmentHereditary monarchy
Khagan 
• 682–691
Elteriš Qaghan
• 691–716
Qapγan Qaghan
• 716
İnäl Qaghan
• 716–734
Bilgä Qaghan
• 744
Ozmıš Qaghan
Tarkhan 
• 682–716
Tonyukuk
• 716–731
Kul Tigin
LegislatureKurultay
History 
• Established
682
• Disestablished
744
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Western Turkic Khaganate
Eastern Turkic Khaganate
Tang dynasty
Xueyantuo
Uyghur Khaganate
Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate
Türgesh

The Second Turkic Khaganate[a] was a khaganate in Central and Eastern Asia founded by Ilterish of the Ashina clan of the Göktürks and lasted from 682 to 744.[6] It was preceded by the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (552–630) and the early Tang dynasty period (630–682). The Second Khaganate[7][8][9] was centered on Ötüken in the upper reaches of the Orkhon River. It was succeeded by its subject Toquz Oghuz confederation, which became the Uyghur Khaganate.

History

[edit]

Origin

[edit]

Tang conquest of the Eastern Turks

[edit]

After the Tang dynasty defeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630, the surrendered Turkic tribal chiefs and their people were organized into six prefectures under four area commands in the Ordos Loop (Guannei Circuit). Some of these were loose rein prefectures which retained their traditional tribal structure while others closer to Tang garrisons were directly governed by officials appointed by the Tang court. Later, protectorates were created in major military garrisons to oversee larger and more remote tribes. The Yanran Protectorate was created in 630 or 647 north of Wuyuan and west of Baotou to oversee the Ordos Loop.[10][11][12] The Yanran Protectorate was renamed Hanhai Protectorate in 663 and renamed again to Anbei Protectorate (Protectorate General to Pacify the North) in 669.[13] The Yunzhong Protectorate was created and renamed to the Chanyu Protectorate in 664, located northwest of Horinger and south of Hohhot.[14]

Rebellions

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In 679, the Turk officials Ashide Wenfu and Ashide Fengzhi rebelled against the Chanyu Protectorate and backed Ashina Nishufu as their khagan. The Turk chiefs of 24 border districts joined them. Chief Administrator Xiao Siye of the Chanyu Protectorate, together with Hua Dazhi and Li Jingjia, were sent to combat the rebels. They won a battle but extended too far and were accosted by a snowstorm. Their camp was caught in a surprise attack by the Turks at night, forcing Xiao to retreat due to the loss of supplies and men. The next Tang general, Pei Xingjian, arrived at Shuo Prefecture and hid his soldiers in 300 supply carts while ordering the weak soldiers to escort the carts and lure the Turks into a trap. When the Turks took the bait and attacked the escorts, the hidden Tang troops ambushed them and forced them to retreat. The fleeing Turk troops were caught by Tang soldiers deployed in strategic locations. In the spring of 680, Pei Xingjian defeated Fengzhi's army at Heishan ("Black Mountain") and captured him. Nishufu was killed by his subordinate and his head was sent to the Tang emperor. The remaining Turk rebels continued to attack the Tang throughout 680 and 681.[15][16][17]

Ashina Funian, a relative of Illig Khagan, the last ruler of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, proclaimed himself khagan in Xià Prefecture and united the forces of Ashide Wenfu. Pei Xingjian was appointed to campaign against the Turks again on 16 February 681. The vice commander, Cao Huaishun, was sent as a vanguard to attack the Turks but he failed to find the enemy before exhausting his troops. When he finally caught Wenfu to the north of the Great Wall, a minor clash occurred before the two sides disengaged. Meanwhile, Funian had kidnapped Cao's wife, children, and captured his supplies. On 9 June 681, Cao attacked Funian without success. The next day, Funian took advantage of change in wind and routed Cao's forces. However, when the Turk khagan returned to camp, he found that his wife and children had been kidnapped by Tang forces led by Cheng Wuting. Cheng led the forces stationed in Chanyu Protectorate to attack Funian while the Uyghurs and Toquz Oghuz tribes attacked Funian from the north. Funian and Wenfu surrendered to Pei Xingjian on 16 November 681. They were sent to Chang'an where they were beheaded in the marketplace along with 52 other Turk leaders. Tonyukuk and Bilge Qaghan blamed the failed uprising on the Turks for being disloyal and surrendering to the Tang. When they surrendered to the Tang emperor again, he was irritated by their revolt and threatened to kill all the Turks.[18][19][20]

In the Orkhon inscriptions, Bilge Qaghan blamed the Chinese for sowing discord within the Turks and enslaving them:[21][22]

"Because of want of harmony between the begs and the people, and because of the Chinese people's cunning and craft and its intrigues, and because the younger and the elder brothers chose to take counsel against one another and bring discord between begs and people, they brought the old realm of the Turkic people to dissolution, and brought destruction on its lawful kagans. The sons of the nobles became the bondsmen of the Chinese people, their unsullied daughters became its slaves. The Turkic begs gave up their Turkic names, and bearing the Chinese names of Chinese begs they obeyed the Chinese Emperor, and served him during fifty years. For him they waged war in the East towards the sun's rising, as far as Bokli kagan, in the West they made expeditions as far as Taimirkapig; for the Chinese Emperor they conquered kingdoms and power. The whole of the common Turkic people said thus: 'I have been a nation that had its own kingdom; where is now my kingdom? For whom do I win the kingdoms? said they. I have been a people that had its own kagan; where is my kagan? Which kagan is it I serve?'".[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]

Ilterish and Qapaghan

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After the failures of the previous Turk leaders, a number of tribal leaders left for Ötüken in Mongolia, including Qutlugh (later Ilterish Qaghan), a grandson of Illig Qaghan. Qutlugh was named Ilterish Qaghan in 680 and with his original 200 men, they campaigned against other tribes, gathering the Turks around him. Within ten years, he had mounted 47 campaigns and fought 20 battles, uniting the steppes and engaging in raids on the Tang dynasty. He died in 692 and was succeeded by his brother, Qapaghan Qaghan, who continued to expand the Second Turkic Khaganate to incorporate more tribes.[31]

In 696–697 Qapaghan subjugated the Khitans and sealed an alliance with the Kumo Xi (Tatabï in Turkic texts), which stemmed the advance of the Tang armies to the northeast, into the foothills of the Khingan, and secured the empire's eastern frontier. Between 698 and 701 the northern and western frontiers of Qapaghan's state were defined by the Tannu Ola, Altai and Tarbagatai mountain ranges. After defeating the Bayirku tribe in 706–707, the Türks occupied lands extending from the upper reaches of the Kerulen to Lake Baikal. In 709–710 the Türk forces subjugated the Az and the Chik, crossed the Sayan Mountains, and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Yenisei Kyrgyz. The Kyrgyz ruler, Bars beg, fell in battle, and his descendants were to remain vassals of the Göktürks for several generations. In 711 the Türk forces, led by Tonyukuk, crossed the Altai Mountains, defeated the Türgesh army in Dzungaria on the River Boluchu. Tonyukuk forced a crossing over the Syr Darya in pursuit of the retreating Türgesh, leading his troops to the border of Tokharistan. However, in battles with the Arabs near Samarkand the Türk forces were cut off from their rear services and suffered considerable losses; they had difficulty in returning to the Altai in 713–714. There they reinforced the army that was preparing to besiege Beshbalik. The siege was unsuccessful and, after losing in six skirmishes, the Türks lifted it.[32]

Raids on the Tang dynasty

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Qapaghan raided the Tang in 693 until the Khitans broke away from the Turks, after which he proposed an alliance with the Tang against the Khitans. He defeated the Khitans in 696 and continued to mount raids on the Tang in the same year. The Turks continued to raid the Tang dynasty in 698, 702, and 706, bringing them many captives and immense wealth. After 706, the number of raids on the Tang decreased. According to Thomas Barfield, this was because the Turks' main motive in raiding China was to extract wealth rather than conquest, and despite political weakness at the Tang court, the Turks' focus had shifted to the west after imposing favorable demands on the Tang.[31]

According to Jonathan Karam Skaff, both the cause and cessation of raids by the Turks were due to the state of Tang border defenses. After Qapaghan had defeated the Khitans, he used their territory as a staging ground for massive raids on the Tang. The decline in raids was due to the re-establishment of previously neglected frontier garrisons along the Yellow River north of the Ordos Plateau. Wu Zetian appointed a new general, Xue Na, who halted the raids from 698 to 712 by improving frontier defenses. In 709, Emperor Zhongzong of Tang re-established major garrisons at the cities of Western Shouxiang, Middle Shouxiang, and Eastern Shouxiang along the north of the Yellow River. After 709, Qapaghan and Bilge Qaghan were limited to campaigns primarily against other nomadic tribes, causing dissatisfaction among their people that led to Qapaghan's assassination in 715.[33]

Crisis

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Bust of Kul Tigin (AD 684–731), prince of the Second Turkic Khaganate, found in Khashaat, Arkhangai Province, Orkhon River valley. Located in the National Museum of Mongolia.

After Qapaghan's death, the empire erupted in civil war between the lineages of Qapaghan led by Inel Qaghan and Ilterish led by Kul Tigin. Kul Tigin, the son of Ilterish Qaghan, defeated Qapaghan's sons and killed all members of their lineage as well as Qapaghan's advisors with the exception of Tonyukuk. Kul Tigin enthroned his elder brother as Bilge Qaghan and together they spent most of their time re-conquering tribes that had broken away during the war. In 620, the Turks attacked the Tang and extracted a yearly tributary payment of 100,000 balls of silk as part of the peace negotiations. Bilge was assassinated in 734 and power passed to his son, Yollıg Khagan. Yollıg died within a year and his brother, Tengri Qaghan, succeeded him. Tengri was a young boy at the time and the empire entered a regency under his mother, Qutluğ Säbäg Qatun, who was a daughter of Tonyukuk. Tengri's uncles split the empire among themselves until Tengri was assassinated in 741. An alliance of former subject tribes including the Basmyls, Karluks, and Uyghurs destroyed the Second Turkic Khaganate in 744. In the aftermath, the Uyghurs defeated their allies and founded the Uyghur Khaganate ruled by the Yaoluoge clan.[34][35]

Fall

[edit]
Golden Crown of Bilge Qaghan from the burial site at Khoshoo Tsaidam.

Kutlug I Bilge Khagan of Uyghurs allied himself with the Karluks and Basmyls. In 744 Kutlug seized Ötüken and beheaded the last Göktürk qaghan, Ozmish Qaghan. His head was sent to the Tang court.[36] In the span of a few years, the Uyghurs gained mastery of Inner Asia and established the Uyghur Khaganate. Kulun Beg succeeded his father Ozmish. The Tang emperor Xuanzong decided to destroy the last traces of the Turkic Khaganate and sent general Wang Zhongsi to Kulun's forces. Meanwhile, Ashina Shi was deposed by Kutlug. Wang Zhongsi defeated the eastern flank of the Turkic army headed by Apa Tarkhan. Although Kulun Beg tried to escape, he was arrested by the Uyghurs and was beheaded in 745. Most of the Türks fled to other Turkic tribes like the Basmyl. However, a group including Qutluğ Säbäg Qatun, Bilge Khagan's widow, and Tonyukuk's daughter, took refuge in the Tang dynasty. The Tang emperor legitimised her as a princess and she was appointed as the ruler of her people.[37]

Political and social structure

[edit]
Painted silk fragments of men in armour, from a Manichaean Temple near Qocho. Turkic, 8th century or 9th century. Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Berlin.[38]

Under Ilterish, the traditional structure of the Turkic state was restored. The empire created by Ilterish and his successors was a territorial union of ethnically related and hierarchically co-ordinated tribes and tribal groups. They were ideologically linked by common beliefs and accepted genealogies, and politically united by a single military and administrative organisation (el) and by general legal norms (törü). The tribal organisation (bodun) and the political structure (el) complemented one another, defining the strength and durability of social ties. In the words of the Türk inscriptions, the khan controlled the state and was head of the tribal group (el tutup bodunïm bašladïm). The principal group in the empire was composed of twelve Turkic tribes headed by the dynastic tribe of the Ashina.[39]

Economy

[edit]

The basis of the Türk economy was nomadic cattle-raising.[40] Organised hunting in the steppes and mountains was of military as well as economic significance: during these hunts, the warriors were trained and the various detachments were coordinated. A Chinese chronicler describes the economy and way of life of the Türks thus: "They live in felt tents and wander following the water and the grass". Horses were of vital importance to the Türks. Although the economy rested on cattle-raising, winter feed for livestock was not stored. The advantage of the horse was that it could be at grass all year round, feeding even under a light cover of snow. Sheep and goats followed the horses, eating the grass that they themselves would have been unable to clear of snow. Bulls, yaks and camels are also frequently mentioned in Türk texts as valuable livestock.[41]

Religion

[edit]

Tengrism was the official religion of the Second Turkic Khaganate. Khagans believed that ruling Ashina family gained legitimacy "through its support from Tengri".[42] Chinese sources state that Bilge wanted to convert to Buddhism and establish cities and temples. However, Tonyukuk discouraged him from this by pointing out that their nomadic lifestyle was what made them a greater military power when compared to Tang dynasty.[43] While Türks' power rested on their mobility, conversion to Buddhism would bring pacifism among the population. Therefore, sticking to Tengriism was necessary to survive.[44][45]

Foreign relations

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Tang dynasty

[edit]

Orkhon inscription

[edit]

While I have ruled here, I have become reconciled with the Chinese people. The Chinese people, who give in abundance gold, silver, millet, and silk, have always used ingratiating words and have at their disposal enervating riches. While ensnaring them with their ingratiating talk and enervating riches, they have drawn the far-dwelling peoples nearer to themselves. But after settling down near them, we have come to see their cunning.[46]

Sogdia

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Camels, women, girls, silver, and gold were seized from Sogdia during a raid by Qapaghan Qaghan.[47]

Bain Tsokto inscription

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𐰦𐰀:𐰘𐰼𐰝𐰃:𐰽𐰀:𐰉𐰽𐰞𐰍𐰺𐰆:𐰺𐰑𐰴:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣:𐰸𐰆𐰯:𐰚𐰠𐱅𐰃:𐰆𐰞:𐰚𐰇𐰤𐱅𐰀:𐱅𐰏𐱅𐰃:𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰝:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣:𐱅𐰢𐰼:𐰴𐰯𐰍𐰴𐰀:𐱅𐰃𐰤𐰾𐰃:𐰆𐰍𐰞

Anta berüki As-oq baslïγaru Soγdaq budun qop kelti jükünti ...tegti Türük budun Temir Qapïγqa Tensi oγulï.

The whole Sogdian people, led by Asuk, came and obeyed. Those days, the Turkish people reached the Iron Gates.[48]

Works of art and artifacts

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Türk soldier in armour, Shorchuk, Xinjiang, 8th century CE.[49]

Numerous artefacts of gold and silver are known from the graves of the rulers of the Second Turkic Khaganate.

Rulers

[edit]

Khagans

[edit]
Khagan reign father,
grandfather		 Regnal name

(Chinese reading)

 Personal name

(Chinese reading)

Ilterish Qaghan 682–692 Etmish Beg,
Illig Qaghan		 Xiédiēlìshī Kèhán 阿史那骨篤祿
Āshǐnà Gǔdǔlù
Qapaghan Qaghan 692–716 Etmish Beg,
unknown		 Qiānshàn Kèhán 阿史那默啜
Āshǐnà Mòchuài
Inel Qaghan 716–717 Qapaghan Qaghan,
Etmish Beg		 Tàxī Kèhán 阿史那匐俱
Āshǐnà Fújù
Bilge Qaghan 717–734 Ilterish Qaghan,
Etmish Beg		 Píjiā Kèhán 阿史那默棘連
Āshǐnà Mòjílián
Yollıg Khagan 734–739 Bilge Qaghan,
Ilterish Qaghan		 Yīrán Kèhán 阿史那伊然
Āshǐnà Yīrán
Tengri Qaghan 739–741 Bilge Qaghan,
Ilterish Qaghan		 Dēnglì Kèhán 阿史那骨咄
Āshǐnà Gǔduō
Ozmish Qaghan
(Usurped the throne)		 742–744 Pan Kul Tigin,
Ashina Duoxifu		 Wūsūmǐshī Kèhán 阿史那乌苏米施
Āshǐnà Wūsūmǐshī
Kutluk Yabgu Khagan
(Usurped the throne)		 741–742 Unknown
(not Ashina)		 N/A Gǔduō Yèhù
Ilterish Alp Bilge Qaghan
 742–744 Uti beg,
Ashina Duoxifu		 Hèlà Píjiā Kèhán Ashina Shi (阿史那施)
Kulun Beg
 744–745 Özmiş Khagan,
Pan Kul Tigin		 Báiméi Kèhán Ashina Gulongfu
Later claimants
  • Eletmish Kagan 747–759[51]
  • Bügü Kagan 759–779[51]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ Old Turkic: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰜:𐰃𐰠, romanized: Türük el, lit. 'State of the Turks'[4] · Chinese: 後突厥; pinyin: Hòu Tūjué, known as Turk Bilge Qaghan country (Old Turkic: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰝:𐰋𐰃𐰠𐰏𐰀:𐰴𐰍𐰣:𐰃𐰠𐰭𐰀, romanized: Türük Bilgä Qağan eli) in Bain Tsokto inscriptions[5]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Newly discovered Old Turkic runic inscription of the Ulaanchuluut Mountain (Red Mountain) from Central Mongolia. On the basis of the Mongol-Japanese International Epigraphical Expedition in August 2018, Osawa Takashi.
  2. ↑ David Prager Branner, (2006), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic philosophy and historical-comparative phonology
  3. ↑ Empires, Diplomacy, and Frontiers. (2018). In N. Di Cosmo & M. Maas (Eds.), Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250–750 (p. 269-418). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    "... some scholars see this practice as amounting to a state religion, "Tengrism", in which the ruling Ashina family gained legitimacy through its support from Tengri."
  4. ↑ Sigfried J. de Laet, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Jose Luis Lorenzo, Richard B. Nunoo, Routledge, 1994, History of Humanity, p. 56
  5. ↑ Aydın (2017), p. 119
  6. ↑ History of Civilizations of Central Asia. UNESCO. 2006. p. 331. ISBN 978-9231032110.
  7. ↑ Elena Vladimirovna Boĭkova, R. B. Rybakov, Kinship in the Altaic World: Proceedings of the 48th Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Moscow, 10–15 July 2005, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2006 ISBN 978-3-447-05416-4, p. 225.
  8. ↑ Anatoly Michailovich Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1984 ISBN 978-0-299-14284-1, p. 256.
  9. ↑ András Róna-Tas, An introduction to Turkology, Universitas Szegediensis de Attila József Nominata, 1991, p. 29.
  10. ↑ Skaff 2012, p. 248-249.
  11. ↑ Schottenhammer 2023, p. 130.
  12. ↑ Xiong 2008, p. 615.
  13. ↑ Xiong 2008, p. 41, 203.
  14. ↑ Xiong 2008, p. 652, 203.
  15. ↑ Xiong 2023, p. 147.
  16. ↑ Chen 2021, p. 16-17.
  17. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 202 (in Chinese)
  18. ↑ Chen 2021, p. 17-19.
  19. ↑ Pan, Yihong (1997). "Chapter 8: China, the Second Turkish Empire and the Western Turks, 679-755". Son of Heaven and Heavenly Qaghan: Sui-Tang China and Its Neighbors. Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University. p. 262. ISBN 9780914584209.
  20. ↑ Mihaly Dobrovits, TEXTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND POLITICAL OF THE OLD TURKIC RUNIC INSCRIPTIONS, p. 151
  21. ↑ Ross, E. Denison (1930). "The Orkhon Inscriptions: Being a Translation of Professor Vilhelm Thomsen's Final Danish Rendering". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. 5 (4). University of London: 861–76. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00090558. JSTOR 607024. S2CID 140199091.
  22. ↑ Scharlipp, Wolfgang-Ekkehard (1995). "China and Tibet as Referred to in the Old Turkic Inscriptions". Diogenes. 43 (171): 45–42. doi:10.1177/039219219504317106.
  23. ↑ Kemal Silay (1996). An Anthology of Turkish Literature. The University. pp. 4, 5. ISBN 978-1-878318-11-4.
  24. ↑ J. J. Saunders (1 March 2001). The History of the Mongol Conquests. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-0-8122-1766-7.
  25. ↑ René Grousset (1953). The Rise and Splendour of the Chinese Empire. University of California Press. pp. 130–. ISBN 978-0-520-00525-9. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  26. ↑ Julia Lovell (1 December 2007). The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC - AD 2000. Grove/Atlantic, Incorporated. pp. 142–. ISBN 978-1-55584-832-3.
  27. ↑ Analecta Orientalia Posthumous Writings and Selected Minor Workds. Brill Archive. pp. 42–. GGKEY:3S3JPXD29QD.
  28. ↑ Luther Carrington Goodrich (2002). A Short History of the Chinese People. Courier Corporation. pp. 120–. ISBN 978-0-486-42488-0.
  29. ↑ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics. University of California Press. pp. 49–. ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  30. ↑ Denis C. Twitchett (27 September 1979). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 3, Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part One. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
  31. 1 2 Barfield 1989, p. 147-148.
  32. ↑ Klyashtorny, 1964, p. 35-40.
  33. ↑ Skaff 2012, p. 49-50.
  34. ↑ Barfield 1989, p. 149-150.
  35. ↑ Liu 2006, p. 330-331
  36. ↑ Grousset 114.
  37. ↑ L.M. Gumilev, (2002), Eski Türkler, translation: Ahsen Batur ISBN 975-7856-39-8, OCLC 52822672, p. 441-564 (in Turkish)
  38. ↑ SKUPNIEWICZ, Patryk (2017). Crowns, hats, turbans and helmets. The headgear in Iranian history, volume I: Pre-Islamic Period. K. Maksymiuk & G. Karamian. p. 253.
  39. ↑ Czeglédy, 1972, p. 275-281.
  40. ↑ History of Civilisations of Central Asia. UNESCO. 2006. p. 333. ISBN 978-9231032110.
  41. ↑ D. Sinor and S. G. Klyashtorny, The Türk Empire, p. 338
  42. ↑ Empires, Diplomacy, and Frontiers. (2018). In N. Di Cosmo & M. Maas (Eds.), Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250–750 (p. 269-418).
  43. ↑ Denis Sinor (ed.), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, vol.1, Cambridge University Press, 1990 ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9, 312-313.
  44. ↑ Wenxian Tongkao, 2693a
  45. ↑ Ercilasun 2016, p. 295-296
  46. ↑ Ross, E. (1930). The Orkhon Inscriptions: Being a Translation of Professor Vilhelm Thomsen's final Danish rendering. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 5(4), 861-876.
  47. ↑ Tekin, 1968, 289
  48. ↑ Lucie Šmahelová, (1958), Kül-Tegin monument. Turkic Khaganate and research of the First Czechoslovak-Mongolian expedition in Khöshöö Tsaidam 1958, p. 100
  49. ↑ G, Reza Karamian; Farrokh, Kaveh; Syvänne, Ilkka; Kubik, Adam; Czerwieniec-Ivasyk, Marta; Maksymiuk, Katarzyna. "Crowns, hats, turbans and helmets The headgear in Iranian history volume I: Pre-Islamic Period Edited by Katarzyna Maksymiuk & Gholamreza Karamian Siedlce-Tehran 2017". p. 1252.
  50. ↑ "National History Museum of Mongolia". 7 September 2019.
  51. 1 2 Yu. Zuev (I︠U︡. A. Zuev) (2002) (in Russian), Early Türks: Essays on history and ideology (Rannie ti︠u︡rki: ocherki istorii i ideologii), Almaty, Daik-Press, p. 233 ISBN 9985-4-4152-9 {{isbn}}: ignored ISBN errors (link).

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Barfield, Thomas (1989), The Perilous Frontier - Nomadic Empires and China, Basil Blackwell.
  • Chen, Hao (2021), A History of the Second Türk Empire (ca. 682–745 AD), Brill.
  • Christoph Baumer, History of Central Asia, volume 2, p. 255-270. The other usual sources (Grousset, Sinor, Christian, UNESCO have summaries)
  • Lev Gumilyov, The Ancient Turks, 1967 (long account in Russian at: )
  • Schottenhammer, Angela (2023), China and the Silk Roads (ca. 100 BCE to 1800 CE): Role and Content of Its Historical Access to the Outside World, Brill
  • Skaff, Jonathan Karam (2012), Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors - Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (Oxford Studies in Early Empires), Oxford University Press.
  • Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2000), Sui-Tang Chang'an - A Study in the Urban History of Late Medieval China (Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies), U OF M CENTER FOR CHINESE STUDIES, ISBN 0892641371.
  • Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2008), Historical Dictionary of Medieval China, United States of America: Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0810860537.
  • Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2023), Heavenly Empress：The Age of Wu Zetian, Ainosco Press
  • Yang, Shao-yun (2023), Early Tang China and the World, 618–750 CE, Cambridge University Press
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