Abstract
This contribution addresses a double educational reform introduced in 2019 in Flanders (the northern, Dutch-speaking part of Belgium). New standards were implemented in secondary school education for each school subject, including history. This reform coincided and co-evolved with each other, which made teacher education a Master’s level degree for those aiming to teach in the upper years of secondary. Based on the analysis of primary and secondary sources, both reforms are analyzed in a long-term perspective, focusing on history (teacher) education. It is examined how secondary school history education and academic history teacher education evolved throughout the past century, and how both interacted. The analysis focuses on the main aims attributed to history (teacher) education, on the accompanying pedagogical and didactical methods, and on the (educational and political) agents and stakeholders involved in the decision making process.
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Notes
- 1.
Els Witte, Jan Craeybeckx and Alain Meynen, Political history of Belgium from 1830 onwards (Brussels: Academic and Scientific Publishers, 2009).
- 2.
Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenz (eds.), The Contested Nation. Ethnicity, Class, Religion and Gender in National Histories (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). Kaat Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source: History Education in Belgium. A Historical Perspective,” in National History Standards. The problem of the Canon and the Future of Teaching History. (International Review of History Education vol. 5), ed. Linda Symcox and Arie Wilschut (Charlotte, NC: IAP, 2009), 15–31.
- 3.
Mona Siegeland Kirsten Harjes, “Disarming Hatred: History Education, National Memories, and Franco-German Reconciliation from World War I to the Cold War.” History of Education Quarterly 52, no. 3 (2012): 370–402.
- 4.
Tine Hens, Saartje Van den Borre and Kaat Wils, Oorlog in tijden van vrede: De Eerste Wereldoorlog in de klas, 1919–1940 (Pelckmans: Kalmthout, 2015).
- 5.
Arie Wilschut, “Canonical standards or orientational frames of reference? The cultural and the educational approach to the debate about standards in history teaching,” in National History Standards: The Problem of the Canon and the Future of Teaching History (International Review of History Education vol. 5), ed. Linda Symcox and Arie Wilschut (Charlotte, NC: IAP, 2009), 113–135.
- 6.
Hens et al. Oorlog in tijden van vrede, 2015.
- 7.
Wilschut. “Canonical standards or orientational frames of reference,” 2009.
- 8.
Van Nieuwenhuyse, “Torn Between Patriotic, Civic and Disciplinary Aspirations,” 2018.
- 9.
Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source,” 2009.
- 10.
Tessa Lobbes, “Verleden zonder Stof. De Gedaanten van het Heden in het Belgische Geschiedenisonderwijs (1945–1989)” (PhD diss., University of Leuven, 2012).
- 11.
Tessa Lobbes, “Geschiedenisonderwijs tegen de Horizon van het Heden. Het Experiment van Leopold Flam in het Nederlandstalige Rijksonderwijs (1955–1970),” Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis 42, no. 1 (2012): 139–92.
- 12.
Winters, E.A, “Harold Rugg and Education for Social Reconstruction” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1968).
- 13.
Lobbes. “Verleden zonder Stof,” 2012.
- 14.
Lobbes, “Geschiedenisonderwijs tegen de Horizon van het Heden,” 2012; Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source,” 2009.
- 15.
Lobbes, “Verleden zonder Stof,” 2012.
- 16.
Bregt Henkens, “The Rise and Decline of Comprehensive Education: Key Factors in the History of Reformed Secondary Education in Belgium, 1969–1989,” Paedagogica Historica 40, no. 1–2 (2004): 193–209.
- 17.
Jerome Bruner, Toward a Theory of Instruction (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1966); Lawrence Stenhouse, “The Humanities Curriculum Project,” Journal of Curriculum Studies 1(1968): 26–33.
- 18.
Lobbes, “Verleden zonder Stof,” 2012.
- 19.
Van Nieuwenhuyse, “Torn Between Patriotic, Civic and Disciplinary Aspirations,” 2018.
- 20.
Valerie Rosoux and Laurence van Ypersele, “The Belgian National Past: Between Commemoration and Silence,” Memory Studies 5, no. 1 (2012): 45–57.
- 21.
Lobbes, “Verleden zonder Stof,” 2012; Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source,” 2009.
- 22.
Lobbes, “Verleden zonder Stof,” 2012. For examples, see Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, “From Triumphalism to Amnesia: Belgian-Congolese (Post) Colonial History in Belgian Secondary History Education Curricula and Textbooks (1945–1989),” Yearbook of the International Society for History Didactics 35 (2014): 79–100.
- 23.
Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source,” 2009.
- 24.
Wilschut, “Canonical Standards or Orientational frames of reference,” 2009.
- 25.
Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source,” 2009.
- 26.
Lobbes, “Verleden zonder Stof,” 2012.
- 27.
Tessa Lobbes and Kaat Wils, “Belgium,” in The Palgrave Handbook of Conflict and History Education in the Post-Cold War Era, ed. Luigi Cajani, Simone Lässig, and Maria Repoussi (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 101–111.
- 28.
Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source,” 2009. Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse and Kaat Wils, “Remembrance Education between History Teaching and Citizenship Education”Citizenship Teaching and Learning 7, no. 2 (2012): 157–71.
- 29.
Hans Cools, “An Ongoing Past: The Second World War in Flemish History Textbooks for Secondary Schools.”Historical Understanding and Reconciliation in the EU and Asia: How Do We Represent Aggressors and Victims of War in History Education? 1, no. 1 (2011): 57–68.
- 30.
Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse and Kaat Wils, “Historical Narratives and National Identities. A Qualitative Study of Young Adults in Flanders.”Journal of Belgian History 45, no. 4 (2015): 40–72.
- 31.
Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, “Secundair onderwijs, derde graad ASO: Uitgangspunten bij de vakgebonden eindtermen geschiedenis,” Brussels, 2000.
- 32.
Van Nieuwenhuyse and Wils, “Historical Narratives and National Identities,” 2015.
- 33.
Flemish Ministry of Education and Training. “Secundair onderwijs, derde graad ASO vakgebonden eindtermen geschiedenis,” Brussels, 2000.
- 34.
Van Nieuwenhuyse and Wils, “Historical Narratives and National Identities,” 2015.
- 35.
Stuart Hall, “The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power,” in Formations of Modernity (Understanding Modern Societies: An Introduction – Book 1), ed. Stuart Hall and Bram Gieben (Cambridge: Polity Press-Blackwell-Open University, 1992), 185–227.
- 36.
Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, “Between Non-Human and Individual Agents: The Attribution of Agency in Flemish History Textbook Chapters on the Cold War,” in Teaching the Cold War: International Perspectives on Memory Practices in Educational Media and in the Classroom, ed. Barbara Christophe, Peter Gautschi and Robert Thorp (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 159–180.
- 37.
Wils, “The Evaporated Canon and the Overvalued Source,” 2009.
- 38.
Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, Hanne Roose, Fien Depaepe, Lieven Verschaffel and Kaat Wils, “Reasoning with and/or about Sources? The Use of Primary Sources in Flemish Secondary School History Education.”Historical Encounters 4, no. 2 (2017): 48–70.
- 39.
Van Nieuwenhuyse, “Torn Between Patriotic, Civic and Disciplinary Aspirations,” 2018. Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse and Kaat Wils, “History Educational Research into Historical Consciousness in Flanders.” in Contemplating Historical Consciousness: Notes from the Field, ed. Anna Clark and Carla Peck (Berghahn Books: New York, 2019), 46–60.
- 40.
Van Nieuwenhuyse and Wils, “Remembrance Education,” 2012.
- 41.
See Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, “‘Remembrance Education’ and the Historization of Holocaust Memories in History Education.”Yearbook of the International Society for History Didactics 33 (2012): 207–26.
- 42.
Flemish Ministry of Education and Training, Starting Points for the Cross-Curricular Final Objectives Outlined for Secondary Education (Brussels, 2010).
- 43.
Ibid.
- 44.
European Commission, Key competences for lifelong learning: European Reference Framework (Publications Office of the European Union, 2007).
- 45.
Flemish government, Ontwerp van decreet betreffende de onderwijsdoelen voor de eerste graad van het secundair onderwijs. Memorie van toelichting (Brussels, 2018). On the one hand, ‘consciousness,’ so it was confirmed by officials of the Ministry of Education, was chosen as a uniform term beyond specific competences; while using ‘historical consciousness,’ they did not deliberately refer to the concept of ‘historical consciousness’ as used in history education research by many scholars such as Peter Seixas (ed.), Theorizing historical consciousness, (University of Toronto Press: Toronto, Buffalo & London, 2004) and Jörn Rüsen,History: Narration, Interpretation, Orientation, (Berghahn Books: New York & London, 2005). On the other hand, the officials’ initial idea of how ‘historical consciousness’ should be given shape was nevertheless closely related to its key idea of connecting past, present, and future to each other.
- 46.
Bruno De Wever and Christophe Verbruggen, “De toekomst van geschiedenisdidactiek in Vlaanderen. Evidence based?,” in Essays over de leraar en de toekomst van de lerarenopleiding, ed. Ruben Vanderlinde, Isabel Rots, Melissa Tuytens, Kris Rutten, Ilse Ruys, Ronald Soetaert and Martin Valcke (Gent: Academia Press, 2013), 137–150; Van Nieuwenhuyse and Wils, “History Educational Research into Historical Consciousness in Flanders,” 2019.
- 47.
For an overview of the conceptual differences between both, see Peter Seixas, “Historical consciousness and Historical thinking,” in Palgrave handbook of research in historical culture and education, ed. Mario Carretero, Stefan Berger and Maria Grever (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 59–69.
- 48.
Sam Wineburg, Historical thinking and other unnatural acts: Charting the future of teaching the past, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); Sam Wineburg, Daisy Martin and Chauncy Monte-Sano, Reading like a historian. Teaching literacy in Middle and High School History Classrooms (New York-London: Teachers College Press, 2013); Jannet van Drie and Carla van Boxtel, “Historical Reasoning: Towards a Framework for Analyzing Students’ Reasoning about the Past” Educational Psychology Review 20, no. 2 (2008): 87–110; Peter Seixas and Tom Morton, The Big Six Historical Thinking Concepts (Toronto: Nelson Education, 2013); Peter Seixas and Carla Peck, “Teaching Historical Thinking,” in Challenges and Prospects for Canadian Social Studies, eds. Alan Sears and Ian Wright (Vancouver: Pacific Educational Press, 2004), 109–117; Carla van Boxtel and Jannet van Drie, “Historical reasoning in the classroom. What does it look like and how can we enhance it?” Teaching History 150 (2013): 32–40.
- 49.
Agency for Higher Education, Adult Education, Qualifications and Study Grants, Vlaamse Referentiekaders voor de Europese sleutelcompetenties. Inhoudelijke kaders voor het ontwikkelen van einddoelen in het onderwijs (Brussels, 2017). Also, see Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse. “Knowing & Doing History? De Spanning in Aandacht Voor Historische Kennis ‘versus’ Kennisconstructie Door Historici.” Tijdschrift Voor Geschiedenis 130, no. 2 (2017), 265–268.
- 50.
Van Nieuwenhuyse and Wils, “History Educational Research,” 2019.
- 51.
Wilschut, “Canonical standards or orientational frames of reference,” 2009.
- 52.
Agency for Higher Education, Adult Education, Qualifications and Study Grants, Vlaamse Referentiekaders. Also, see Van Nieuwenhuyse. “Torn Between Patriotic, Civic and Disciplinary Aspirations, 2018.
- 53.
This expert was one of the two previously named experts responsible for writing a ‘frame of reference text’ for historical consciousness: Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse.
- 54.
Flemish government, “Ontwerp van decreet betreffende de onderwijsdoelen,” 2018.
- 55.
Lorin Anderson, David Krathwohl and Benjamin Bloom, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (New York: Longman, 2001).
- 56.
At first officials of the ministry of Education and Training had asked a history teacher trainer, otherwise not involved in the whole process, from a college to develop a proposal. This proposal was, however, considered very weak and inadequate by all Committee members and hence immediately and unanimously rejected.
- 57.
Van Nieuwenhuyse et al., “Reasoning with and/or about Sources,” 2017.
- 58.
Jolien Gijbels, Koen Lagae and Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, Hoe Historici Geschiedenis Schrijven. De Eerste Wereldoorlog en de Historische Praktijk (Historisch denken vol. 2). (Leuven: Universitaire Pers Leuven, 2017).
- 59.
Allan Collins, John Brown and Ann Holum, “Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible.” American Educator 15, no. 3 (1991): 6–91.
- 60.
Susan De La Paz and Mark Felton “Reading and writing from multiple source documents in history: Effects of strategy instruction with low to average high school writers.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 35, no. 3 (2010), 174–192; Avishag Reisman, “Reading like a historian: A document-based history curriculum intervention in urban high schools.” Cognition and Instruction 30 (2012): 86–112; Gerhard Stoel, Jannet van Drie and Carla van Boxtel, “The effects of explicit teaching of strategies, second-order concepts, and epistemological underpinnings on students’ ability to reason causally in history.”Journal of Educational Psychology 109, no. 3 (2017): 321–337.
- 61.
Jörn Rüsen, “Historical Consciousness: Narrative Structure, Moral Function, and Ontogenetic Development,” in Theorizing Historical Consciousness, ed. P. Seixas (University of Toronto Press: Toronto, Buffalo & London, 2004), 63–85. Rüsen. History: Narration, Interpretation, Orientation, 2005.
- 62.
Kieran Egan, The Educated Mind. How Cognitive Tools Shape Our Understanding, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). See also Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, “Going beyond Eurocentric us-them thinking in history education: Multiperspectivity as a tool against radicalisation and for a better intercultural understanding,” in Radicalisation. A Marginal Phenomenon or a Mirror to Society?, eds. Noel Clycq, Christiane Timmerman, Dirk Vanheule, Rut Van Caudenberg and Stiene Ravn (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2019), 215–241.
- 63.
Marjolein Wilke, Fien Depaepe and Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, “Students’ Understanding and Perception of Agency in past and Present.”International Journal for History and Social Sciences Education 23, no. 2 (2019): 28–32.
- 64.
See Laurent Licata, “Social psychological dynamics of historical representations in the enlarged European Union,” Cost IS1205, last modified 2019, http://costis1205.wixsite.com/home
- 65.
Egan, The Educated Mind, 1997.
- 66.
Bruno De Wever and Christophe Verbruggen, “De toekomst van geschiedenisdidactiek in Vlaanderen,” 2013. Paul Janssenswillen, Wil Meeus, Mathea Simons and Tom Smits. “De hervorming van de Vlaamse academische lerarenopleidingen in de achteruitkijkspiegel: blijven ze een speelbal op het universitaire veld?” Tijdschrift voor onderwijsrecht en onderwijsbeleid 1 (2018): 97–113.
- 67.
Janssenswillen et al., “De hervorming van de Vlaamse academische lerarenopleidingen,” 2018.
- 68.
Hilde Crevits, Beleidsnota 2014–2019. Onderwijs (Brussels, 2014).
- 69.
Flemish government. “Decreet over de uitbouw van de graduaatsopleidingen binnen de hogescholen en de versterking van de lerarenopleidingen binnen de hogescholen en universiteiten” Brussels, 2018. https://www.vlaamsparlement.be/parlementaire-documenten/parlementaire-initiatieven/1236666
- 70.
Bruno De Wever, Idesbald Goddeeris, Paul Janssenswillen, Karel Van Nieuwenhuyse, Christophe Verbruggen, Paul Erdkamp, Tim Soens and Koen Verboven “Leraars geschiedenis in de solden.” De Standaard, December 13, 2017.
- 71.
For a discussion in the commission of Education and Training of the Flemish parliament on 18 January 2018, see https://www.vlaamsparlement.be/commissies/commissievergaderingen/1220807/verslag/1224159
- 72.
Van Nieuwenhuyse and Wils, “History Educational Research,” 2019.
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Van Nieuwenhuyse, K. (2020). From Knowing the National Past to Doing History: History (Teacher) Education in Flanders Since 1918. In: Berg, C.W., Christou, T.M. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of History and Social Studies Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37210-1_14
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